Product Code Database
Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the first Hinduism during the iron and Classical India of India. In Indian philosophy, of which Hindu philosophy is a prominent subset, the word used for philosophy is Darshana (Sanskrit: दर्शन; meaning: "viewpoint or perspective"), from the Sanskrit root 'दृश' (drish) meaning 'to see, to experience'.
The schools of thought or Darshanas within Hindu philosophy largely equate to the six ancient orthodox schools: the āstika (Sanskrit: आस्तिक) schools, defined by their acceptance of the Vedas, the oldest collection of Sanskrit texts, as an authoritative source of knowledge. Of these six, Samkhya (सांख्य) is the earliest school of dualism; Yoga (योग) combines the metaphysics of Samkhya with meditation and breath techniques; Nyaya (न्याय) is a school of logic emphasising direct realism; Vaisheshika (वैषेशिक) is an offshoot of Nyaya concerned with atomism and naturalism; Mimamsa (मीमांसा) is a school justifying ritual, faith, and religious obligations; and Vedanta (वेदान्त) contains various traditions that mostly embrace nondualism.Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, , pages 2–5Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, , pages 124–134, 164–173, 242–265Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, , pages 7–14
Indian philosophy during the ancient and medieval periods also yielded philosophical systems that share concepts with the āstika traditions but reject the Vedas. These have been called nāstika (heterodox or non-orthodox) philosophies, and they include: Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, Ajivika, and others,P Bilimoria (2000), Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , page 88 which are thus broadly classified under Indian but not Hindu philosophy. Western scholars have debated the relationship and differences within āstika philosophies and with the nāstika philosophies, starting with the writings of Indology and Orientalism of the 18th and 19th centuries, based on limited availability of Indian literature and medieval Doxography. The various sibling traditions included in Indian philosophies are diverse and are united by: shared history and concepts, textual resources, Ontology and Soteriology focus, and cosmology.
Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies. Examples of such schools include: Pāśupata Śaiva, Shaiva Siddhanta, Pratyabhijna, Raseśvara and Vaishnavism. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions,Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, , pages 219–223 which are nevertheless found in the Puranas and the Āgamas.Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, , pages 28–35Jayandra Soni (1990), Philosophical Anthropology in Śaiva Siddhānta, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, , pages vii–xiiHilko Schomerus and Humphrey Palme (2000), Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, , pages 13–19 Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive Epistemology literature called Pramana, as well as theories on metaphysics, axiology, and other topics.Karl H. Potter (1961), A Fresh Classification of India's Philosophical Systems , The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1, pages 25–32
Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorised into āstika and nāstika schools of thought. The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have been called ṣaḍdarśana ('six systems'). This schema was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedanta. It was then adopted by the early Western
The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.
Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six pramāṇas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths:
Each of these are further categorised in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by the different schools. The schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge. For example, the Charvaka nāstika philosophy holds that only one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge, the Samkhya school holds that three are (perception, inference and testimony), while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge.
Samkhya school espouses dualism between witness-consciousness and 'nature' (mind, perception, matter). It regards the universe as consisting of two realities: Purusha (witness-consciousness) and prakriti ('nature'). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (awareness, intellect) and ahankara (individualised ego consciousness, "I-maker"). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. Samkhya – Hinduism Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)
Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche).Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 154–206 Guna, it states, are of three types: Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; Rajas guna is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions.James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, , page 265 The interplay of these gunas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.T Bernard (1999), Hindu Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 74–76Haney, William S., Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained, Bucknell University Press (1 August 2002). P. 42. . Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs (Jeevatmas) who possess consciousness. Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate about its specific view on God.Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, , page 39Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 38–39John C. Plott et al. (1984), Global History of Philosophy: The period of scholasticism, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 367Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), , Columbia University Press, , Chapter 4, pg. 77
The Samkhyakarika, one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to be "three adhyatmika, adhibhautika and adhidaivika – that is, suffering caused internally by self, cause by other human beings, caused by acts of nature kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them. Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press The text then presents a distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states,
The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realisation of Puruṣa as distinct from Prakriti; this knowledge of the Self is held to end transmigration and lead to absolute freedom (kaivalya).Larson, Gerald James. Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Motilal Banarasidass, 1998. P. 13. .
The universe is conceptualised as a duality in Yoga school: purusha (witness-consciousness) and prakṛti (mind, perception, matter); however, the Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya school.Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, , pages x–xi, 101–107, 142 and Introduction chapter
A key text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."Max Müeller, The six systems of Indian philosophy, Longmans, page 410 Hindu philosophy recognises many types of Yoga, such as rāja yoga, Jnana yoga, The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra by Georg Feuerstein karma yoga, bhakti yoga, tantra yoga, mantra yoga, Kundalini yoga, and hatha yoga. The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra, Georg Feuerstein
The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school theory that jñāna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monism personalism. Personalism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013)Northrop Frye (2006), Educated Imagination and Other Writings on Critical Theory, 1933–1962, University of Toronto Press, , page 291 Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realises the equivalence of Atman (Self) and Brahman.Mike McNamee and William J. Morgan (2015), Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy, Routledge, , pages 135–136, Quote: "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter."Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, , pages 141–142
The Vaiśeṣika school is related to the Nyāya school but features differences in its epistemology, metaphysics and ontology.DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, , pages 172–175 The epistemology of the Vaiśeṣika school, like Buddhism, accepted only two means to knowledge as reliable – perception and inference. The Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas.
Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, and fire). Each of these four are of two types: atomic (paramāṇu) and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called "small" (aṇu). A composite, in this philosophy, is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible. The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their guṇa (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (commonness), viśeṣa (particularity) and amavāya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).M Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 228–237
Nyāya epistemology accepts four out of six prāmaṇas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, , page 172
In its metaphysics, the Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than the others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance).Vassilis Vitsaxis (2009), Thought and Faith, Somerset Hall Press, , page 131 Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality.BK Matilal (1997), Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 353–357 The Nyāya Sūtras begin:
The Nyāya school uses a three-fold procedure: enumeration, definition, and examination. This procedure of enumeration, definition, and examination is recurrent in Navya-Nyāya texts like The Manual of Reason (Tarka-Sangraha).
The Mīmāṃsā school has several sub-schools defined by epistemology. The Prābhākara subschool of Mīmāṃsā accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). The Kumārila Bhaṭṭa sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added a sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology: anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).
The metaphysics of the Mīmāṃsā school consists of both atheism and theism doctrines, and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the Self (Atma) is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma. To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name. The Mīmāṃsākas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic vidhi (injunctions) and in rituals are prescriptive karya (actions), and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with.
Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language.Peter M. Scharf, The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy (1996), Chapter 3 While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools,Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter GmbH (Berlin), , pages 23–24, 551–663 their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also describe, develop and derive. Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā developed and emphasises karmakāṇḍa (the portion of the śruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasises jñānakāṇḍa (the portion of the Vedas that relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).Oliver Leaman (2006), Shruti, in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy, Routledge, , page 503
The emergence of the Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge, focusing on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. These included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and Brahman, and an emphasis on meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 77;
According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman.Richard Brooks (1969), The Meaning of 'Real' in Advaita Vedānta, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 19, No. 4, pages 385–398 Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. Māyā connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal".AC Das (1952), Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144–154 The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be".H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, , page 57Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, , page 119Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott (2009), Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, , pages 14–16 The concept of ātman is of one Atman, with the light of Atman reflected within each person as jivatman. Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is reflected within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence.John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion, Routledge, , pages 98–106 They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of māyā as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. Jivanmukta (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as ātman in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.Michael Comans (1993), The question of the importance of Samadhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedanta, Philosophy East & West. Vol. 43, Issue 1, pages 19–38Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86
Some believe that Shankara is a "closet Buddhist," suggesting as evidence his positions that selfhood is illusory and an experience of it disappears after one attains enlightenment. However, Shankara does believe that there is an enduring reality that is ultimately real. He specifically rejects Buddhist propositions in his commentary on Brahma Sutras 2.2.18, 2.2.19, 2.2.20, 2.2.25, among others.
The Viśiṣṭādvaita sub-school also disagrees with the Advaita claim that misconception ( avidyā) is indescribable as either real or unreal ( anirvacanīya). It sees this as a contradiction, and argues that avidyā must either be non-different from Brahman or different from Brahman. If it is different from Brahman, the non-dualist position of Shankara is given up, but if it is non-different, it must exist ultimately as Brahman. Ramanuja claims that avidyā cannot be identical with Brahman because Brahman is pure knowledge, and avidyā is absence of knowledge. Ramanuja also argues that the Advaita position cannot coherently maintain that Brahman is non-intentional consciousness (consciousness that does not have an object), because all cognitions are necessarily about something.
Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas; it espouses dualism by theorising the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the Paramatman, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions.Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, , pages 124–127 The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.Christopher Etter (2006), A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism, iUniverse, pp. 59–60, . Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only God. However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent. Dvaita sub-school disagrees with the Vishishtadvaita claim that Brahman is linked with the individual self and the world in the way that a soul is with its body. Madhvacharya argues that Brahman cannot be the material cause of the world.
Moksha, in Dvaita, is achievable only through the grace of God Vishnu.
Bṛhaspati is sometimes referred to as the founder of Cārvāka (also called Lokayata) philosophy. Much of the primary literature of Cārvāka, the Barhaspatya sutras (ca. 600 BCE), however, are missing or lost.Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2013), The base text and its commentaries: Problem of representing and understanding the Carvaka / Lokayata, Argument: Biannual Philosophical Journal, Issue 1, Volume 3, pages 133–150 Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the , and the Indian epic poetry as well as from the texts of Buddhism and from Jain literature.Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 53–58 The Tattvôpaplava-siṁha by the skeptic philosopher Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa has been considered by many scholars to be an unorthodox Cārvāka text.
One of the widely studied principles of Cārvāka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and Metaphysics truths. In other words, the Cārvāka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13–16
Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the Self with God through the intellect.Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 107
Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit or Brahman),Singh, Jaideva. Pratyãbhijñahṛdayam. Moltilal Banarsidass, 2008. PP. 24–26. in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness. This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world (Śakti) is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness (Chit).Ksemaraja, trans. by Jaidev Singh, Spanda Karikas: The Divine Creative Pulsation, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.119 However, Advaita holds that Brahman is the reality (pure consciousness) and it is inactive (niṣkriya) and the phenomenal world is an appearance (māyā).Shankarananda, (Swami). Consciousness is Everything, The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism. PP. 56–59 The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realise one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.Mishra, K. Kashmir Saivism, The Central Philosophy of Tantrism. PP. 330–334.
(2025). 9780826499660, Continuum. ISBN 9780826499660Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, , pages 101-119 Some heterodox ( nāstika) traditions such as Charvaka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy because the word Hindus is an exonym historically used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent.R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design. Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164–165, Quote: "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..."KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 67; Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Cārvāka system, is a Hindu system.";V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.",
Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism, Skepticism, and Humanism, , page 84;
For a general discussion of Cārvāka and other atheistic traditions within Hindu philosophy, see Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, , pages 367–378
Classifications
In the history of India, the six orthodox schools had emerged before the start of the Common Era, and some schools emerged possibly even before the Buddha.Students' Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica, , page 316 Some scholars have questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Indian philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views.
/ref>
Āstika
There are six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought. Each is called a darśana, and each darśana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each āstika darśana also accepts the premise that Atman (eternal Self) exists.Klaus Klostermaier (2007), Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide, , Chapter 2, page 26John Plott, James Dolin and Russell Hatton (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 60–62 The schools of philosophy are:
Nāstika
Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four (heterodox) schools are prominent:
John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism"
KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, , pages 246–249, from note 385 onwards;
Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana? , Philosophy Now (2013, Subscription Required); and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of Gautama Buddha.
Other schools
Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar Madhvacharya, identified by some as Vidyaranya, in his book 'Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha', includes 16 philosophical systems current as of 14th century. Along with some of the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools and sub-schools, it includes the following sub-schools:
Characteristics
Overview
Epistemology
Epistemology is called pramana. It has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. Pramāṇa is a Hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge. The focus of pramāṇa is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.
Sāmkhya
Samkhya (Sanskrit: सांख्य) is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism, with origins in the 1st millennium BCE.Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, , p.138-149 It is a rationalism school of Indian philosophy, and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies.Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al.), Ashgate, , pages 149–158 Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of six Pramana as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These were pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and sabda (Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , pages 245–248
Yōga
In Indian philosophy, Yoga (Sanskrit: योग) is, among other things, the name of one of the six āstika philosophical schools.For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: . The Yoga philosophical system aligns closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya school.Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali IEP The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of personal god (Ishvara, unlike Samkhya.Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", p. 104. Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Campbell, page 280 The epistemology of the Yoga school, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six prāmaṇas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda (āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).
Vaiśeṣika
The Vaisheshika (Sanskrit: वैशेसिक) philosophy is a naturalist school. It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (), and that one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school. The Vaiśeṣika darśana is credited to Kaṇāda Kaśyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE.Oliver Leaman, Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge, , 1999, page 269.Michael Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, , page 7 The foundational text, the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, opens as follows:
Nyāya
The Nyaya (Sanskrit: न्याय) school is a realist āstika philosophy. Nyaya: Indian Philosophy Encyclopædia Britannica (2014) The school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.B Gupta (2012), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge and Freedom, Routledge, , pages 171–189PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought: Toward a Constructive Postmodern Ethics, State University of New York Press, , page 223 The foundational text of the Nyāya school is the Nyāya Sūtras of the first millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE.B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.
Mīmāṃsā
The Mīmāṃsā (Sanskrit: मीमांसा) school emphasises religious hermeneutics and exegesis. Mimamsa Encyclopædia Britannica (2014) It is a form of philosophical realism.M. Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 323-325 Key texts of the Mīmāṃsā school are the Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini.M. Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 298-335 The classical Mīmāṃsā school is sometimes referred to as pūrvamīmāṃsā or Karmamīmāṃsā in reference to the first part of the Vedas.Chris Bartley (2013), Purva Mimamsa, in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, 978-0415862530, page 443-445
Vedānta
The Vedanta (Sanskrit: वेदान्त) school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCEOliver Leaman (1999), Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy, Routledge, , page xiv and is the most developed and best-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge:P Bilimoria (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy – Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, , pages 137–154 pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference), upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). All of these have been further categorised by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error.
JN Mohanty (2001), Explorations in Philosophy, Vol 1 (Editor: Bina Gupta), Oxford University Press, page 107-108Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, , page 251;
R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, , pages 345–347
Advaita
Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism. Advaita Vedanta Sangeetha Menon (2012), IEP Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness.Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, , pages 10–14 This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE. Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived. Adi Shankara , Sengaku Mayeda, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)
Viśiṣṭādvaita
Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman. Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman.
Dvaita
Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. Hindu Philosophy , IEP, Quote: "Dvaita: Madhva is one of the principal theistic exponents of Vedānta. On his account, Brahman is a personal God, and specifically He is the Hindu deity Viṣṇu." Also called Tattvavāda and Bimbapratibimbavāda, the Dvaita sub-school was founded by the 13th-century scholar Madhvacharya. The Dvaita Vedanta school believes that God (Vishnu, Paramatman) and the individual Selfs (Atman) (jiva) exist as independent realities, and these are distinct.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1 & 2, Rosen Publishing, , pages 12-13, 213-214, 758-759
B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma (1962). 9788120800687, Motilal Banarsidass (2014 Reprint). ISBN 9788120800687
Dvaitādvaita (Bhedabheda)
Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarkacharya, a 7th-century Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region which was further propounded by his disciple Srinivasacharya. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, Self, and matter. Self and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while Self and matter are dependent. Thus Self and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the Self is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of ; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.
Śuddhādvaita
Shuddhadvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531). The founding philosopher was also the guru of the Vallabhā sampradaya ("tradition of Vallabh") or Pushtimarg, a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna. Vallabhacharya enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Māyā (which itself is His power) and manifests Himself through the world.Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, “Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)”, Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917. That is why Shuddhadvaita is known as "Unmodified transformation" or "Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda". Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world. The Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary, the physical material world is. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a "part" (but devoid of bliss) like sparks and fire.“Brahmavād Saṅgraha”, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014. This sub-school thus denies the Advaita conception of Maya because the world is considered to be real insofar as it is non-different from Brahman, who is believed to be Krishna.
Acintya Bheda Abheda
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), stated that the Self or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion ( bhakti). He followed the Dvaita concept of Madhvacharya. Lord Chaitanya (krishna.com) "This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference." In accordance with the Vishnu Purana, this sub-school ascribes six virtues to God (Bhagavan): power ( aishvarya), potency ( virya), fame ( yasha), prosperity ( shri), knowledge ( jnana), and renunciation ( vairagya). The potency of Bhagavan, which is transcendental, is not conceivable to humans and its relationship to Bhagwan is characterised as one in which there is "inconceivable difference in non-difference" ( acintya-bhedabheda). This potency has divisions that are described within Jiva Gosvami's Bhagavat Sandarbha, which comments on the internal potency, and Paramatma Sandarbha, which elaborates the marginal and external potencies of Bhagavan. Maya, which is central to advaita, is the external potency of Bhagavan, which is controlled by Paramatma, an expansion of Bhagavan. And, Brahman is included within Bhagavan, who is the object of meditation and realisation for bhakti-yogis.
Akshar-Purushottam Darshan
Cārvāka
The Charvaka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) school is one of the nāstika or "heterodox" philosophies.R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design, Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164–165, Quote: "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..."Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, , pages 367–378;
Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism, Skepticism, and Humanism, , page 84 It rejects supernaturalism, emphasises materialism and philosophical skepticism, holding empiricism, perception and conditional inference as the proper source of knowledge.KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 67;
Roy W Perrett (1984), The problem of induction in Indian philosophy , Philosophy East and West, 34(2): 161–174V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", Cārvāka is an atheism school of thought. It holds that there is neither afterlife nor rebirth, all existence is mere combination of atoms and substances, feelings and mind are an epiphenomenon, and free will exists.R Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata, Anthem, , pages 53, 94, 141–142>Johannes Bronkhorst (2012), Free will and Indian philosophy, Antiqvorvm Philosophia: An International Journal, Roma Italy, Volume 6, pages 19–30
Shaivism
Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine.. However, the Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE) is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.. Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dualist-with-dualist ( ) perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought: Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).Cowell and Gough (1882), p. xii.
Pāśupata Shaivism
Pāśupata Shaivism (Pāśupata, 'of Paśupati') is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools.Flood (2003), p. 206. The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematised by Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. Paśu in Pashupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or principium), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler.Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 104-105. Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of Selfs to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, Self possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 103
Shaiva Siddhanta
Considered normative Tantra Shaivism, Shaiva SiddhantaXavier Irudayaraj, "Saiva Siddanta", in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.10 ff.Xavier Irudayaraj, "Self Understanding of Saiva Siddanta Scriptures" in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.14 ff. provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism.Flood (2006), p. 120. Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace).Flood (2006), p. 122. This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the Nayanars.
Kashmir Shaivism
Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighthKashmir Shaivism: The Secret Supreme, By Lakshman Jee or ninth century CE in Kashmir and made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the end of the twelfth century CE.The Trika Śaivism of Kashmir, Moti Lal Pandit, pp. 1 It is categorised by various scholars as monisticKashmir Shaivism: The Secret Supreme, Swami Lakshman Jee, pp. 103 idealism (absolute idealism, theistic monism, realistic idealism, transcendental physicalism or concrete monism). It is a school of Śaivism consisting of Trika and its philosophical articulation Pratyabhijña.Flood (2005), pp. 56–68
See also
Notes
Bibliography
(2025). 9781405132510, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 9781405132510
Further reading
External links
|
|
